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It can be taken intravenously, orally (swallowed by mouth), or by inhalation by use of a nebulizer

It also enhanced mitochondrial biogenesis, increasing mitochondrial transcription factor-A (TFAM) peroxisome proliferative-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR), and PPAR coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1) protein levels, thereby reducing malondialdehyde and increasing glutathione levels

Following repeated antigenic stimulation, high expression of PD-1 and other co-inhibitory molecules has been identified as an indicator of T-cell exhaustion and dysfunction, particularly in cells isolated from the tumor microenvironment (63)

2026 Jun 1:432:112059

For example, berberine was found to inhibit cardiac fibroblast proliferation and myofibroblast differentiation by modulating AMPK/PGC-1 signaling, helping to alleviate cardiac fibrosis in models of ischemic or diabetic cardiomyopathy (Hu et al., 2025)